On a crisp morning in the Kashmir Valley, the River Jhelum glistens under the pale sun. From a distance, it looks like a scene of quiet industry. Dozens of narrow wooden boats bob gently in the current, their crews scooping fine golden sand from the riverbed. But step closer and the scale comes into sharp focus. Hundreds of boats, stretching as far as the eye can see, scrape the river floor, hauling tonnes of sand that will soon feed a construction boom across the valley.
The lifeline of Kashmir
The River Jhelum has been central to life in the Kashmir Valley for centuries. Fed by streams from the Greater Himalayas and Pir Panjal range, it flows for 165 kilometres through the valley before crossing into Pakistan. Along its length, it delivers drinking water, irrigates farmlands, supports fisheries, and serves as a transport route.
It also carries something less visible but equally valuable: vast reserves of fine-quality sand and gravel. These materials are the backbone of the valley’s construction industry, used in building homes, roads, and infrastructure.
For generations, mining this sand was a small-scale, largely local practice. Families in riverside villages scooped sand from shallow stretches using simple tools. The impact was modest and the river replenished itself naturally. That balance is now gone.
A booming but fragile industry
Research led by Shahid Ahmad Dar from the Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, published in The Extractive Industries and Society, reveals the staggering scale of modern sand mining on the Jhelum.
Using high-resolution Google Earth imagery and extensive field surveys along 150 kilometres of the river, Dar’s team counted nearly 3,000 sand-mining boats between Khanabal and Boniyar. Together, they extract around 2.27 million tonnes of sand each year.
The industry employs roughly 20,000 families, with each boat supporting crews of four to six miners plus loaders, drivers, and transport operators. For many, this is the most reliable source of income in a region with few industrial alternatives. Earnings average 1,200 to 1,500 rupees per person per day, a decent wage in rural Kashmir.
The cost to the river
What sustains people can also exhaust nature. The study documents how unregulated sand mining is eroding riverbanks, altering channels, and damaging aquatic ecosystems.
Miners often work in the river’s main channel, removing sand faster than natural processes can replace it. In some places, pits deepen and expand until they reach the banks, causing collapses that widen the river and accelerate erosion. The disturbance stirs up sediments, increasing water turbidity and making it harder for fish and aquatic invertebrates to feed or reproduce.
Heavy machinery compounds the damage. Excavators and tippers compact the riverbed, remove riparian vegetation, and fragment wildlife habitats. Large trees are felled to create access roads or storage sites, displacing birds and mammals. Oil spills from machinery and transport vehicles further degrade water quality.
In one alarming case in the Bringi stream, excessive removal of sand exposed underlying limestone to water flow, leading to its dissolution and the sudden appearance of a sinkhole.
A contested economy
For many miners, the risks to the river are outweighed by the need to earn a living. But the industry is also marked by deep tensions. Locals complain about the growing presence of “outsider” contractors. E-tendering systems have enabled larger firms to secure contracts, sidelining small-scale miners.
The result, according to Dar’s survey, is resentment. Around 68 percent of respondents said the influx of outsiders was unfair to local miners. Many also argued that the system encourages over-extraction, as contractors seek to maximise profits before leases expire.
Illegal mining is another flashpoint. Although 240 mineral blocks along the Jhelum have been officially designated for extraction, satellite imagery and field surveys show boats operating well outside these zones. Enforcement is patchy, hampered by the sheer length of the river and limited government oversight.
Sand, climate, and the world beyond Kashmir
The struggle over the Jhelum’s sand is not unique. Around the world, rivers are being stripped for construction material at unsustainable rates. Globally, 32 to 50 billion tonnes of sand and gravel are extracted each year, making them the most mined materials on Earth.
In Southeast Asia, the Mekong River’s sediment load has plummeted due to mining, jeopardising fisheries and farming. In Sri Lanka, uncontrolled sand removal has altered river courses and worsened flooding. Even in developed countries, demand for sand is driving the search for offshore deposits and manufactured alternatives.
Sand mining is also tied to climate resilience. Healthy riverbeds and floodplains act as buffers during heavy rains, absorbing water and reducing flood peaks. Removing too much sediment reduces that capacity, leaving downstream communities more vulnerable to extreme weather, a growing concern as climate change intensifies rainfall patterns in South Asia.
The policy vacuum
Dar and his colleagues argue that while some guidelines for sustainable mining exist, enforcement is weak or absent. The study calls for a “sand budget”, a science-based estimate of how much material can be extracted without harming the river’s ecological integrity.
The team’s policy recommendations include:
- Restricting mining in erosion-prone or ecologically sensitive zones.
- Replacing at least 50 percent of river sand in large construction projects with offshore or manufactured alternatives such as M-sand.
- Licensing only local community groups for small-scale operations.
- Banning heavy machinery in the river channel.
- Introducing an environmental tax on sand to fund restoration and awareness programmes.
- Using remote sensing and mobile apps to monitor extraction in real time.
Such measures, the authors argue, would balance the needs of the construction sector with the health of the river.
The future of the river
In interviews, many miners expressed a paradoxical view: they want the industry to continue, but they also support better regulation. Around 53 percent strongly agreed that sand mining should be managed scientifically. This suggests a potential alliance between policymakers and local communities, if trust can be built.
Some solutions are already in use elsewhere. In parts of India, government-run online platforms manage sand sales, ensuring transparency and fixed pricing. In Europe, environmental taxes have driven greater use of recycled aggregates. The challenge in Kashmir will be adapting such models to the valley’s unique geography, economy, and politics.
Why it matters
The Jhelum’s story is part of the global “tragedy of the sand commons”, a race to extract a finite resource without accounting for long-term costs. In Kashmir, those costs include not just biodiversity loss and water quality decline, but also the erosion of cultural and economic ties to the river.
Sand mining is often invisible to outsiders. It happens far from tourist hotspots, in early morning hours, with little media coverage. But its impacts ripple outward: through the fish that no longer spawn, the farms that lose fertile soil, the villages that face new flood risks.
If managed wisely, sand mining on the Jhelum could provide steady livelihoods and sustainable construction material for decades. If left unchecked, it could strip the river of its resilience, leaving future generations with a degraded, unstable waterway.
The choice lies with policymakers, communities, and all who benefit from the river’s bounty. The next time you see a building rise, ask yourself: where did its sand come from, and at what cost?
Reference
Dar, S. A., Ganie, D. H., Teeli, J. I., & Bhat, S. U. (2023). A policy approach for sustainable governance of sand mining activities in NW Kashmir Himalayas. The Extractive Industries and Society, 13, 101204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2022.101204
